语言学导论部分重难点总结(一)

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　　语言学是以语言为研究对象的科学。它研究的对象主要就是人类的语言，包括语言的各个方面。语言学研究的任务包括研究、描写语言的结构、功能及其历史发展，揭示语言的本质，探索语言的共同规律，所以语言学是一个很抽象的学科;但是它又牵扯到我们日常生活中语言的具体呈现形式，因此初识语言学，我们要了解的就是它研究层次的分类，即分为宏观语言学和微观语言学，这也是语言学导论部分的第一个知识点。总体来说，语言学导论重点包括以下内容：
　　1. 语言学的定义(the definition of linguistics)
　　Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but the language of all human society, language in general. It is a scientific study, based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. The four principles that make linguistics a science are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity. As a science, linguistics now has a set of established theories, methods and sub-branches.
　　在这段话中，最核心的词为the scientific study of language.在回答语言学定义的相关问题时，必须要有这句话。
　　2. 语言学的分支(the branches of linguistics)
　　在回答这个问题时，首先要搞清楚语言学分为微观和宏观两个方面，然后才分别阐述微观语言学和宏观语言学具体包括哪些内容。
　　Linguistics is classified into micro-linguistics and macro-linguistics.
　　Micro-linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Phonetics studies the speech sounds, including the production of speech, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.. Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. Syntax studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. It identifies permissible sequences in a language and the relationships between elements in sentence structure. Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language can influence interpretation.
　　Macro-linguistics include applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics and many other branches.
　　3. 语言的定义特征(the design features of language)
　　关于语言的定义特征，不同的教材有不同的版本，但是基本都是基于以下几个特征分别阐述的。
　　(1)Arbitrariness(任意性): This is a core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. This feature was first discussed by Saussure. There are different levels of arbitrariness: arbitrary relationship between the sound of morpheme and its meaning; arbitrariness at the syntactic level; arbitrariness and convention.
　　(2)Duality(双重性): It means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. At the lower or basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.
　　(3)Creativity(创造性或能产性): By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Language is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for this possibility.(creativity在某些版本里又被称为productivity)
　　(4)Displacement(移位性): By displacement it means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present ( in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. In a word, the intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.
　　(5)Cultural transmission(文化传递性): Language is not biologically transmitted. Instead, it is culturally transmitted from generation to generation through teaching and learning.