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翻译理论知识概要
第一部分：翻译术语
1. Definitions of translation
Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.
(1). Linguistic Views on Translation
Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts.
Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20).
Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12).
Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5).
(2). Cultural Views on Translation
In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation".
Translation is a process which occurs between cultures rather than simply between languages {Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:35).
A translator who uses a cultural approach is simply recognizing that each language contains elements which are derived from its culture (such as greetings, fixed expressions and REALIA), that every text is anchored in a specific culture, and that conventions of text production and reception vary from culture to culture (Shuttleworth & Cowie1997:35).
For truly successful translating, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function. (Nida, 2001:82).
翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化, 还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但是不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。
(3).Literary Views on Translation
Translators who hold this view believe that translation is an artistic recreation or a recreated art. Some modern Western scholars from the literary school take literary translation to be "the manipulation or rewriting of the source texts".
文学翻译的任务是要把原作中包含的一定社会生活的映象完好无损地从一种语言移注到另一种语言中, 在翻译过程中追求语言的艺术美, 再现原作的艺术性。用茅盾的话说, 是"使读者在读译文的时候能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受"。
语言是塑造文学形象的工具, 因而文学的形象性特征必然要在语言上表现出来。文学语言的特征, 诸如形象、生动、鲜明、含蓄、凝练、准确、风趣、幽默、辛辣、滑稽、悦耳、民族特点、地方色彩, 还有行业习语、民间的俚语、谚语等等, 都是作家根据塑造形象的需要, 从现实生活中提炼创造出来的。文学作品的艺术形式与思想内容是辩证统一的, 翻译要保存原作风格特点, 因此要求译文生动形象、形神毕肖、雅俗等同、简洁精美、词情并茂(《译学辞典》2004: 291)。
(4). Semantic Views on Translation
This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):"Translating means translating meaning".
Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5).
Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22).
In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author's original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151).
(5).Functional Views on Translation
Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client, the reader as wellas the purpose or use of the translation:
It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator's, i.e.client's needs (Baker,2001:236).
(6).Communicative Views on Translation
This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context.
Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on
the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22).
Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient. A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text's original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21).
The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation. Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity.
2. Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or Translation Theorists
Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation.
(1). 严复 (1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation
信 (faithfulness): 忠实准确
达 (expressiveness}: 通顺流畅
雅 (elegance): 文字古雅
Yan Fu put forward this "Three-character Guide” in his preface to the translation of T.H. Huxley's book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言 1898): 译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉......
易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。......
Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant. It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.……
The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if one's language lacks grace, it won't go far. These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance. I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer's ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today. Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different ……
Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance" has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve "elegance". Yan Fu's criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles. Despite this, Yan’s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed. Nowadays to many translators, "elegance" implies "the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original”(黄龙, 1988:90) or "运用读者所最乐于接受的文体, 使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响"(劳陇，《翻译通讯》1983年第10期).
(2). 鲁迅 信（faithfulness)
顺（smoothness)
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换他的衣裳，却不该削低他的鼻子，剜掉他的眼睛(《鲁迅全集》第6卷，48页)。
(3). 林语堂 忠实{faithfulness)
通顺(smoothness)
美(beautifulness)
翻译的标准问题，大概包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的"译事三难"，大体上是正相比符的。……我们并须记得这所包括的就是：第一、译者对原文方面的问题，第二、译者对中文方面的问题，第三、是翻译与艺术文的问题。以译者所负的责任言，第一是译者对原著者的责任，第二是译者对中国读者的责任，第三是译者对艺术的责任。三样的责任全备，然后可以谓具有真正译家的资格。(《论翻译》,林语堂名著全集,1995:306)
(4). 傅雷:神似 (resemblance in spirit)
以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老头》重译本序，1951)
(5). 钱钟书：化境 (reaching the acme of perfection)
文学翻译的最高境界是"化"，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于"化境"。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的"投胎转世"(the transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。(《林纾的翻译》，1964)
(6). 刘重德：信（faithhlness）
达（expressiveness）
切（closeness)
信于内容 (to be faithful to the content of the original);
达如其分 (to be as expressive as the original);
切合风格 (to be as close to the original style as possible).
(《浑金璞玉集》，1994: 9)
(7). 许渊冲：三重标准 (three levels of criteria) (《翻译的艺术》，1984: 26)
标 准 低标准 中标准 高标准
内容忠实(信) 明确 准确 精确
(三似) 意似 形似 神似
(三化) 浅化 等化 深化
形式通顺(达) 易懂 通顺 扬长(雅,或传神)
(8). Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation
Alexander F.Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790):
1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work (译作应该完全传达原作的思想)；
2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the original (译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)；
3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition(译作应当和原作一样流畅).
Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second .
(9). Eugene A. Nida (奈达): Functional Equivalence (功能对等)
Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87):
1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度).
2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. (最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文).
3. Classification of translation
(1). Jakobson (1896-1982)
1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.
2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.
3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems.
e.g.
1) 原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!”
译文一: 孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？” (徐志刚 译)
译文二: The Master said，"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt，
Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 译)
[点评] 原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译 (intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述 (rewording)。原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译 (interlingual translation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。
2) 原文：A: What does your watch say?
B: It says “five past three”.
[点评] 在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点钟了。而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息 (non-linguistic message)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于"符号系统"(即用于交际的系统)。雅可布逊 Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者 (Hervey et.al 1995:8-9).
(2). Peter Newmark (纽马克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交际翻译与语义翻译)
Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39):
1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果).
2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义).
(3). Christiane Nord
“译文的功能并非由分析原文自动得出，而是由跨文化传意的目的决定的”。（Nord,1991:9）而译文可以按照其传意功能分为两种类型，一种是能在目标文化的新情景中独立地起传意作用的工具；另一种是纪录作者与原文接受者如何在来源文化里传意的文献。换言之，翻译有两种方法：工具性翻译和文献性翻译。
a) 工具性翻译 (instrumental translation)有三种：
1）等功能翻译：对目标读者发挥原文功能，例如，使用说明书；
2）异功能翻译：发挥相似功能，例如把《格列佛游记》翻译给儿童阅读；
3）相应翻译：在目标文学语境中再现原文在来源文学语境中的功能，以发挥与原文相应的效果，常见于诗歌翻译。
b) 文献性翻译(documental translation)
1）逐字翻译：再现原语系统；
2）字面翻译：再现原文形式；
3）语文学翻译：结合字面翻译和文外阐释，再现原文的形式和内容；
4） 异化翻译：保留原文的文化背景，给译文接受者营造异国情调（Nord,1997:47-52； 1991：73）
4. Nature and Scope of Translation
What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and
yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.
Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation", for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent "'fanyi" sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself.
If the word "translation" refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators.
Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc. , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation（全文翻译）, abridged translation（摘译）or adapted translation（编译）.
5. Principles or Criteria of Translation
The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s "three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、达、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance ).
In the past decades Mr. Yan's principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead.
Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅". According to them, "雅" means far more than the English word "elegance". Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor. The second group, however, argues that the word "雅" is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr. Yan Fu's principle, it discards the character "雅" and tries to find some other new criteria instead. Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、达、切 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、达、贴 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own. Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation (化境). The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator's smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader.
Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy（忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general. By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.
6. Literal Translation and Free Translation
The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.
The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences"; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile's tears, armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen's agreement, and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎 (paper tiger), 一国两制 (one country, two systems ), and so on.
Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example:
•Adam's apple 喉结
•at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟
•It rains cats and dogs. 大雨滂沱
•Don't cross the bridge till you get to it. 不必担心过早。(不必自寻烦恼)
•Do you see any green in my eye? 你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗?
The above illustrations can not be translated literally，otherwise，the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all，let alone the original meaning.
Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute “literal”，nor entirely "free" version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences. Let's scrutinize the following two practical cases.
Original English 1
I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television，fluffy blouses, the nuclear family, (Helen Snow，My China Years)
Chinese Version A:
我爱虎猫, …… (爱)电视上放映的英国影片，有绒毛的短衫，核心家庭，……
Chinese Version B:
我喜欢豹猫, …… 喜欢公共电视台播放的英国电影，喜欢蓬松、柔软的棉毛衫，喜欢一夫一妻制的家庭，……
Comment:
Apparently, these two Chinese versions are far from being perfect. Other things aside, the rendering of the phrase nuclear family poses a serious problem of representation. Version A renders "the nuclear family" as "核心家庭" by means of literal translation. However, this version is too stiff, therefore it fails to convey the original meaning to the Chinese reader—for most Chinese, they have hardly any idea what "核心家庭" really means. Version B adopts the approach of free translation and puts it into "一夫一妻制"；evidently it goes too far and distorts the author's original intention, and in doing so, the translator abuses the practice of free translation. In fact, the nuclear family has nothing to do with either of the versions. A close examination of its definition in an English-English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children. Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent "小家庭".
Original English 2 :
Mao Tse-tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets.(ibid. )
Chinese Version A:
毛泽东有很好的教养，内部是钢，有坚强的抗力，是坚韧的材料制成的。这是义和团设想的由于神力具有的，可以把腹部袒胸给外国人的子弹的那种材料。
Chinese Version B:
毛泽东教养有素，精神支柱铁铸钢打，不怕高压，是由坚韧的组织构成的。这
种组织，就是义和拳认为他们通过魔法得到的那种组织袒胸露体，刀枪不入。
Comment:
The word "tissue" can hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation，nor could the metaphor "inside he was made of steel" be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence. However，since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to their own understanding. Inversion A，"tissue" is freely rendered as "材料" (material)，while version B literally as"组织"(organic tissue)—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer. By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission，conversion and restructuring，we may translate the original English sentence as follows:
Revised Version:
毛泽东外表温文尔雅，但内心深处却钢铸铁打，既坚韧，又抗压—在他的身上可以看到当年义和团自信所具有的那种神力，面对洋枪洋炮也敢袒胸露怀。
From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other. The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese. In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes. In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary.
7. Omission
Omission is a technique opposite to amplification. True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work. But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation. In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording. What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even "a stumbling block" in the other. Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example:
Original English: The time-keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones.
Chinese Version: 电子表比机械表准确得多。
A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the "redundant" English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural. Therefore, a manipulation of the technique "omission" is always called for in English-Chinese translation. On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions.
8. Conversion
Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation. Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation. For example:
Original English: This watch never varies more than a second in a month.
Chinese Version: 这块表一个月的误差从不超过一秒钟。
The English verb "varied" can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence.
9. Restructuring
Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into. It is also called rearrangement or inversion.
10. Hypotactic vs. Paratactic (形合与意合)
Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don't come. English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis.
Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives
Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis.
11. Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation
(1). Foreignizing Translation
Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader's awareness of cultural differences. To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation. In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression. The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease. In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added. However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually become familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions. Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by
Lu Xun:
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存，却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换它的衣裳，却不该削低它的鼻子，剜掉它的眼睛。（《鲁迅全集》第6卷，348页）
and also a quotation from Mao Zedong:
要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要的成分。我们不是硬搬或滥用外国语言，是要吸收外国语言中的好东西，于我们适用的东西。因为中国原有语汇不够用，现在我们的语汇中就有很多是从外国吸收来的。例如今天开的干部大会，这“干部”两个字，就是从外国学来的。我们还要多多吸收外国的新鲜东西，不但要吸收他们的进步道理，而且要吸收他们的新鲜用语。（《反对党八股》）
It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for-word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers.
Examples:
1). arm to the teeth
武装到牙齿 (cf. 全副武装)
2). crocodile tears
鳄鱼的眼泪 (cf. 猫哭老鼠假慈悲)
3). Beauty lies in the lover's eyes.
情人眼里出美人 (cf. 情人眼里出西施)
4). In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is King.
盲人国里，独眼人称王 (cf. 蜀中无大将，廖化作先锋)
5). as gay (cheerful) as a lark
像云雀那样快活(cf.兴高采烈)
e.g. Ha, ha! We should be as gay as larks, Mr. Richard — why not? (C. Dickens: The Old Curiosity Shop)
6)．Sour grapes
酸葡萄(cf.把得不到的东西说成是不好的)
e.g. But because we cannot satisfy the desires of our hearts - why should we cry "sour grapes" at them? (H. Wells: Christina Alberta's Father)
7). Pandora's box
潘多拉的盒子 (cf. 灾难和罪恶的来源)
8). Judas kiss
犹大之吻 (cf.虚伪的好意)
9). teach a pig to play on a flute
教猪吹笛 (cf. 对牛弹琴)
10). flog a dead horse 鞭打死马 (cf.做无用功；白费口舌)
11). a dark horse 黑马 (cf. 出人意料的获胜者)
12). as easy as ABC 像ABC 字母一样简单 (cf. 非常容易)
13). ivory tower 象牙塔 (cf. 人们避免现实生活中烦恼的小天地)
14). Beauty is but skin-deep.
(谚语) 美貌只是一层皮(cf. 不可以貌取人)
15). Can the leopard change his spots?
(谚语)美洲豹岂能改变身上的花纹 (cf. 本性难移)
16). Trojan horse
(谚语) 特洛伊木马 (cf. 诡计；隐患；从内部进行颠覆破坏的人)
17). Never offer to teach fish to swim.
(谚语) 不要教鱼游泳 (cf. 不要班门弄斧)
18). look for a needle in a haystack
在草堆里找针 (cf. 海底捞针)
19). a stick-and-carrot policy
大棒加胡萝卜政策(cf.软硬兼施；恩威并用)
20). domino effect
多米诺骨牌效应 (cf.连锁反应)
21). John is her office Romeo.
约翰是她办公室里的罗迷欧(cf. 办公室里的男情人)
22). sandwich man
三明治式广告宣传员 (cf. 身前身后挂着标语牌的广告宣传员)
In foreignizing translation, a paraphrase or an explanation, if necessary, may be added to the unfamiliar expression or a footnote may be placed at the end of the translation, so as to make the English culture-loaded expression comprehensible to our readers:
e.g. It was another one of those Catch-22 situations, you're damned if you do and you're damned if you don't.
这真是又一个如同军规第二十二条的尴尬局面：做也倒霉，不做也倒霉，令人左右为难。
注:：Catch-22 situation 源自美国小说家 Joseph Heller 于1961 年出版的小说《 第二十二条军规》（Catch-22)。该条军规规定：飞行员如果觉得自己神经不正常，可以获准不执行飞行任务，但必须提出申请并得到批准。但同时该军规又规定：如果飞行员因此提出申请，则充分证明该飞行员能意识到面临着无法克服的困难，头脑清醒，神经正常，因此不得豁免飞行任务。这是一条自相矛盾、无法执行的规定。
(2). Domesticating Translation
Domesticating translation minimizes the foreignness of the source-language text by changing heterogeneous elements into what is familiar to the target-language reader. This method of "substitution" means replacing the English culture-loaded expression by its Chinese equivalent, which may be similar in form and same in meaning (形似意同) or different in form but same in meaning (形异意同), to minimize the strangeness of the English expression by adopting a fluent, natural-sounding Chinese style for our readers' preferences. Domestication is usually employed when the translator believes that the original cultural flavor is widely different from Chinese culture and therefore too difficult for our readers to understand.
Both at present and in history, the domesticating strategy seems to have been dominant in China, for reviewers and publishers tend to lay great emphasis on readability of the translated text, which coincides with the taste of the general reader. The weakness of domestication is that the original cultural flavors are not communicated to our readers and the translation becomes a "regrettable art".
It should be emphasized that many English and Chinese expressions may seem similar in form, but they are actually different in meaning or in shades of implication. Translators should guard against these "false friends" and the resulting mistakes (see the "CAUTION" below).
Examples:
1). Give him an inch and he will take a mile.
2). like a cat on hot bricks
3). spring (shoot) up like mushrooms
4). The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak.
5). have one foot in the grave
6). carry coals to Newcastle
7). lion in the way (来自《圣经》) 拦路虎
8). Seeing is believing.
9). What's done is done. (Shakespeare)
10). When Greek meets Greek then comes the tug of war. (谚语) 两雄相遇，其斗必烈。
12. Semantic Translation
Semantic translation means reproducing the precise contextual meaning of the English culture-loaded expression within the syntactic and semantic constraints of the Chinese language. Wemay employ the method of concretization" (具体法) or "abstraction" (抽象法) to paraphrase the expression. Semantic translation is employed often after the failure of "foreignizing translation" or "domesticating translation". In many cases we find it difficult to translate them unless we refer to contexts or consult dictionaries.
Examples:
1). apple of discord
(来自希腊神话) 不和的种子；争吵的根源
2). escape by (with) the skin of one's teeth
(来自《圣经》) 死里逃生；幸免于难
3). hole-and-corner
(来自《圣经》) 偷偷摸摸；鬼鬼祟祟
4). as poor as Job
(来自《圣经》) 一贫如洗（穷得象约伯一样）
5). By George!
天啊！好家伙！糟糕！(used as an exclamation of surprise or approval.)
e.g. It couldn't be, by George, that she was deceiving him. (Th. Dreiser: Sister Carrie)
6). Mickey Mouse (= small and unimportant; not to be taken seriously, LDCE 1998: 952)
e.g. •A "Mickey Mouse course" meansa snap course. (American Speech)
• He calls himself the managing director but his company is just a Mickey Mouse operation that he runs from his own home. (LDCE 1998: 952)
7). in for a penny, in for a pound
(= if something has been started it should be finished, whatever the cost may be, LDCE 1998: 1108)
e.g. Now gentlemen, I am not a man who does things by halves, being in for a penny, I am ready, as the saying is, in for a pound. (The Curiosity Shop)
8). bite off more than one can chew
(= attempt more than one can deal with or succeed in finishing, LDCE 1998: 130)
e.g. I told him he would be biting off more than he could chew if he tried to rebuild the house himself, (ibid)
9). be in good company
(= be able to take comfort from the fact that many other [skilled or clever] people are the same as yourself, esp. in not being able to do something, Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1979)
e.g. —"Why are we going to France? I can't speak a word of French."
—"Don't worry, you're in good company— neither can I!" (LDCE 1998: 294)
10). a square peg in a round hole
(= someone who is not suited to the job they hold, the group they belong to, LDCE 1998: 1489)
e.g. Horace hated his work in the office as he had always worked out of doors; he was a square peg in a round hole.
13. Affixation
Affixation is an important means of coining new English words and technical terms, with prefix and suffix as inseparable elements, of the words being coined. The advantage of affixation is evident: it is the most flexible means of forming new words and its potential of creation is almost boundless, therefore it is extensively used in the formation of technical terms. Besides prefix and suffix of English origin, there are some foreign borrowings, noticeably the Latin ones, e.g. bio-(生命、生物), thermo-（热）, electro-(电), aero-(空气) carbo-(碳), hydro-(水), -ite(矿物), -mania(热，狂), etc. If we are familiar with these prefixes and suffixes, many technical terms of such formation can be translated appropriately. The following are some typical examples.
• miniultrasonicprober = mini + ultra +sonic +prober 微型超声波金属探测仪
• macrospacetransship = macro +space + trans + ship 巨型空间转运飞船
• teletypesetter = tele + type + setter 电传排字机
• bathythermograph = bathy +thermo + graph 海水测温仪
• barothermograph = baro + thermo + graph 气压温度记录器
• deoxyribonucleic = de + oxy + ribo + nucleic 脱氧核糖核
• photomorphogenesis = photo +morpho + genesis 光形态发生
14. Compounding
Two or more words combined to form a new word is called compounding. English technical terms formed by compounding generally take three forms: combining with a hyphen (e. g. salt-former 卤素, dew-point 露点, pulse-scaler 脉冲定标器) or without it (e.g. fallout 放射性尘埃, waterlock 水闸, thunderstorm 雷暴) or two or more separate words forming a word combination (e. g. verbal translator 逐字翻译机, hover craft 气垫船, satellite antimissile observation system 卫星反导弹观察系统).
Most of such compound words may be translated literally, i.e. put the Chinese equivalents of the separate elements together and we get the Chinese equivalents of the compound words. Sometimes, however, there are exceptions. For example, bull's eye, cat-and-mouse, dog house etc.—literal translation in tackling such terms may lead astray. Therefore whenever we are confronted with unfamiliar terms and are not sure of their meaning, we should frequently consult dictionaries of relevant specialties. In many cases some additional explanations are needed to make the original meaning clear and accurate.
15. Blending
This is a variant of compounding, omitting the latter part of the first word and clipping off the first part of the second word. Sometimes, however, either the first part or the second part of the overlapped word may be a full word. Generally speaking, this blending of words possesses the combined meaning of both, therefore, literal translation is used in translating such terms, with one element modifying the other.
•smog = smoke + fog
•telex = teleprinter + exchange
•gravisphere = gravity + sphere
•medicare = medical + care
•biorhythm == biological +rhythm
•copytron == copy + electron
16. Acronym
An acronym is a word made up from the first letters of the name of something. Since it is very convenient to use this brief form, acronym is widely adopted in English technical terms. With the rapid development of science and technology, more and more acronyms are extensively used in various fields, therefore, it is up to the translator to discern their actual meaning in different context.
• ADP automatic data processing
• AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
• EDPM electronic data processing machine
• GSV guided space vehicle
• Laser light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
• RAM random access memory
Sometimes, an acronym happens to be a significant English word, or it may possess more than one meaning. In this case, special attention is necessary to pick out the proper one.
MOUSE minimum orbital unmanned satellite of the earth
SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
SNAP subsystem for nuclear auxiliary power
space nuclear auxiliary power
systems for nuclear auxiliary power
AS air scoop
air seasoned
air speed
air station
American Standard
atmosphere and space
automatic sprinkler
automatic synchronizer |
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发表于 2017-8-6 23:14:00